अनुक्रमणिका –. भौतिकी (Physics). रसायन विज्ञान (Chemistry). जिव विज्ञान (Biology).
कंप्यूटर ज्ञान (Computer Science). जैव प्रौद्योगिकी (Biotechnology).
पर्यावरण (Environment). अंतरिक्ष विज्ञान (Space Science). परमाणु विज्ञान (Atom science). सूचना प्रौद्योगिकी (Information Technology).
Home ›› Hindi ›› Essay ›› India ›› Information Technology ›› Essay on India and Information Technology Related Articles: सूचना क्रांति के केंद्र में भारत पर निबंध| Essay on India and Information Revolution in Hindi.
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. Information technology ( IT) is the use of to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate, or, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is considered to be a subset of (ICT).
Humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the in developed in about 3000 BC, but the term information technology in its modern sense first appeared in a 1958 article published in the; authors and Thomas L. Whisler commented that 'the new technology does not yet have a single established name. We shall call it information technology (IT).' Their definition consists of three categories: techniques for processing, the application of and mathematical methods to, and the simulation of higher-order thinking through computer programs.
The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as and telephones. Several products or services within an economy are associated with information technology, including, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet,. Based on the storage and processing technologies employed, it is possible to distinguish four distinct phases of IT development: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450–1840), (1840–1940), and electronic (1940–present). This article focuses on the most recent period (electronic), which began in about 1940.
Main article: have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a. The, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical, and the earliest known geared mechanism. Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not until 1645 that the first capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed., using either or, began to appear in the early 1940s. The, completed in 1941, was the world's first computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete machine., developed during the Second World War to decrypt messages, was the first computer. Although it was, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task.
It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. The first recognisably modern electronic digital was the, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948. The development of in the late 1940s at allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version. Electronic data processing. Main article: Early electronic computers such as made use of, a long strip of paper on which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete.
Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of was developed to remove the clutter from signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line. The first digital storage device was the, based on a standard, but the information stored in it and delay line memory was volatile in that it had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-volatile computer storage was the, invented in 1932 and used in the, the world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer. IBM introduced the first in 1956, as a component of their computer system.: 6 Most digital data today is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as.: 4–5 Until 2002 most information was stored on, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded analog for the first time.
As of 2007 almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally: 52% on hard disks, 28% on optical devices and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, doubling roughly every 3 years. Databases.
Main article: Database management systems emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large amounts of data accurately and quickly. One of the earliest such systems was 's (IMS), which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later. IMS stores data, but in the 1970s proposed an alternative relational storage model based on and and the familiar concepts of tables, rows and columns. The first commercially available (RDBMS) was available from in 1981. All database management systems consist of a number of components that together allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while maintaining its integrity.
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A characteristic of all databases is that the structure of the data they contain is defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a. The (XML) has become a popular format for data representation in recent years.
Although XML data can be stored in normal, it is commonly held in to take advantage of their 'robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort'. As an evolution of the (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine and human-readable. Data retrieval The relational database model introduced a programming-language independent (SQL), based on. The terms 'data' and 'information' are not synonymous. Anything stored is data, but it only becomes information when it is organized and presented meaningfully.: 1–9 Most of the world's digital data is unstructured, and stored in a variety of different physical formats even within a single organization. Began to be developed in the 1980s to integrate these disparate stores.
They typically contain data extracted from various sources, including external sources such as the Internet, organized in such a way as to facilitate (DSS).: 4–6 Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception. It can be broadly categorized as, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.
XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s, particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented such as, describing 'data-in-transit rather than. On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: 'In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be concrete use, but without the reinforcement of definition. The term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position.' . 'Format' refers to the physical characteristics of the stored data such as its scheme; 'structure' describes the organisation of that data.
Citations. Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning,. Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning,. Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.),.
Lavington, Simon (1980), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press,. Lavington, Simon (1998), A History of Manchester Computers (2nd ed.), The British Computer Society,. Pardede, Eric (2009), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference,. Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group,. van der Aalst, Wil M.
(2011), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer,. Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA,.
Weik, Martin (2000), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, 2, Springer,. Wright, Michael T.
(2012), 'The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism', in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco, Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279–292, Further reading. Allen, T.; Morton, M. (1994), Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s,. Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011).: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280. (2011). Price, Wilson T.
(1981), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions,. Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim.
Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World., Massachusetts: Course Technology. Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. External links Wikiversity has learning resources about. Media related to at Wikimedia Commons.
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